Main Article Content
Abstract
This study analyzes two cartoons from Charlie Hebdo, employing six elements of Roman Jakobson's semiotics. It's a descriptive qualitative study using cartoon. The results of the study show that: 1) the cartoon edition 1011 consists of one addresser, Jean Cabut; two addressees, Prophet Muhammad SAW and Islam; one contact, Charlie Hebdo magazine; two contexts, social and religious-social; three codes with their respective messages, it can be concluded with the caricaturist's satire towards the whipping law found in Islamic Sharia; 2) the cartoon with the subtitle "L'amour, plus fort que la haine" consists of one addresser, Renald Luzier; one addressee, Muslim extremist groups; one contact, Charlie Hebdo magazine as one of the mass media in France; two contexts, social and religious-social; two codes with their respective messages, which can be concluded with the peace signal that the cartoonist wants to convey after the burning incident of the Charlie Hebdo magazine office.
Keywords
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
- Alsaafin, Linah. “Islamophobia on the Rise as French Presidential Election Nears.” Aljazeera, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/3/france-election-muslims-islamophobia-macron.
- Amnesty. “France 2022.” Amnesty International, 2023. https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/europe-and-central-asia/france/report-france/.
- Amrulloh, Ahmad Yasir, and Fathoni Arifandi. “Ma’na Al-Hubb Fi Kitaab Al-Hubb Fi Al-Qur’an Al-Karim Bi Qalam M. Said Ramadhan Al-Buthi Istinaadan Ila Al-Mandzur Al-Siimiyaa’iy Li Roman Jakobson.” Afshaha: Jurnal Bahasa Dan Sastra Arab 1, no. 2 (2022): 124–36.
- Basri, Muhammad Ridha. “Dilema Negara Sekuler Prancis: Di Antara Tarikan Islamofobia Dan Fundamentalisme Agama.” Zawiyah: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam 8, no. 1 (2022): 143. https://doi.org/10.31332/zjpi.v8i1.3127.
- Bayrakli, Enes, and Farid Hafez. Islamophobia in Muslim Majority Societies. Islamophobia in Muslim Majority Societies, 2018. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429464850.
- Christiatuti, Novi. “Nekat, Charlie Hebdo Akan Terbitkan Ulang Karikatur Nabi Muhammad.” Detik News, 2020. https://news.detik.com/internasional/d-5156270/nekat-charlie-hebdo-akan-terbitkan-ulang-karikatur-nabi-muhammad .
- Dille, Jackson. “Religious Discrimination against Muslims in France.” Ballard Brief, 2023. https://ballardbrief.byu.edu/issue-briefs/religious-discrimination-against-muslims-in-france.
- DW. “Usai Teror, Muslim Prancis Hadapi Stigmatisasi.” DW News, 2020. https://www.dw.com/id/teror-di-prancis-kian-sudutkan-minoritas-muslim/a-55474495.
- Esmano, Syifa Radhityani, and Airin Miranda. “Pengaruh Kebijakan Laïcité Terhadap Muslim Di Institusi Pendidikan Negeri Prancis Pada Masa Pemerintahan Macron.” Multikultura 1, no. 1 (2022): 24–41.
- Fajrina, Siti, and Surwandono Surwandono. “Retaliasi Islamophobia Di Prancis Dalam Prinsip Maqashid Syari’Ah Dharuriyyah.” Jurnal Politik Profetik 9, no. 1 (2021): 84. https://doi.org/10.24252/profetik.v9i1a5.
- Fakhriansyah, M. “Negara-Negara Tempat Pelecehan Gambar Nabi Muhammad Terjadi.” CNBC Indonesia, 2023. https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20230119191550-4-406928/negara-negara-tempat-pelecehan-gambar-nabi-muhammad-terjadi.
- Firouzi, Jafar, and Seyyed Masoud Eshaghzade. “The Analysis of Applying Roman Jakobson Theory to Bahiyeh Afnan Shahid English Translation of Sepehri ’ s Eight Books.” Journal of Language and Translation 13, no. 4 (2023): 269–80.
- Francois, Myriam. “France’s Treatment of Its Muslim Citizens Is the True Measure of Its Republican Values.” Time, 2020. https://time.com/5918657/frances-muslim-citizens-republican-values/.
- Frenschi, Rayan. “French Islamophobia and Racism Are By-Products of Its Exclusionary National Identity.” The New Arab, 2023. https://www.newarab.com/features/french-islamophobia-product-its-national-identity.
- Guerin, Cecile, and Zoe Fourel. “A Snapshot Analysis of Anti-Muslim Mobilisation in France after Terror Attacks.” Vision of Humanity, 2023. https://www.visionofhumanity.org/a-snapshot-analysis-of-anti-muslim-mobilisation-in-france-after-terror-attacks/.
- Hakim, Lukman, and Alif Hanafi. “Analisis Framing Pemberitaan Pembakaran Al-Qur’an Di Media Online.” Journal of Islamic Communication Studies (JICoS) 1, no. 2 (2023): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.15642/jicos.2023.1.2.1-12.
- Handayani, Rossi. “Buntut Sikap Macron, Muslim Prancis Jadi Sasaran Kekerasan.” Republika, 2020. https://khazanah.republika.co.id/berita/qjkikg320/buntut-sikap-macron-muslim-prancis-jadi-sasaran-kekerasan.
- Islam, Aktar. “Roman Jakobson’s Theory of Poetic Appreciation in Relation to Linguistics.” Literary Herald: An International Refereed/Peer-Reviewed English e-Journal 6, no. 4 (2020): 157–63. http://tlhjournal.com/uploads/products/22.shruti-pandey-article.pdf.
- Islamy, Putri Raisa, and Lusi Andriyani. “Islamophobia Di Jerman Dan Prancis.” INDEPENDEN: Jurnal Politik Indonesia Dan Global 2, no. 2 (2021): 37. https://doi.org/10.24853/independen.2.2.37-46.
- Jakobson, Roman. Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics. Cambridge: Cambridge: MIT Press, 1960.
- Jalalat, Faramarz, Ebrahim Danesh, and Mohammad Farahmand. “A Comparative Study of Abu Yaqube Sejestani and Roman Jakobson’s Communication Model and Theory.” Journal of Comparative Literature, no. 19 (2017): 27–45.
- Jamal, Tanzila. “The Weaponization of Laïcité Against Muslims: Pushing More Towards Extremism.” LSE Blogs, 2021. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/eurocrisispress/2021/06/15/weaponization-of-laicite/.
- Jia, Hongwei. “Semiospheric Translation Types Reconsidered from the Translation Semiotics Perspective.” Semiotica 2019, no. 231 (2019): 121–45. https://doi.org/10.1515/sem-2017-0151.
- Khoer, Miftahul. Teori Semiotika Roman Jakobson Dan Implementasinya Terhadap Beberapa Hadist Di Dalam Buku Yang Berjudul 24 Jam Selaras Dan Teratur Bersama Rasul Oleh Ahmad Von Denferr. Bandung: Bandung: Repository UIN Bandung, 2019.
- Kridalaksana, Harimurti. Mongin Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) - Peletak Dasar Strukturalisme Dan Linguistik Modern/ Harimurti. Jakarta: Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, 2005.
- Lebourg, Nicolas. Islamophobia in France. Occasion, 2016.
- Lestari, Daurina. “Islamofobia Paksa Pekerja Muslim Prancis Pindah Ke Luar Negeri.” VIVA, 2023. https://www.viva.co.id/berita/dunia/1583855-islamofobia-paksa-pekerja-muslim-prancis-pindah-ke-luar-negeri.
- Losi, Rizky Vita, Tiyas Saputri, Widyashanti Kunthara Anindita, Beny Hamdani, Benedictus Sudiyana, Ika Oktaria Cahyaningrum, Fitri Ayu, Nurbaiti Ali, and Nur Hasyim. Linguistik: Teori Dan Pendekatannya. Tahta Media Group, 2023.
- Luzier, Renald. “Cartoonist Luz to Quit Charlie Hebdo.” The Guardian, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/may/19/cartoonist-luz-to-quit-charlie-hebdo-magazine.
- Muhammadiah, Mas`ud, Sri Suharti, Andi Hamsiah, Tomi Arianto, Agus Rofi`i, Karmila AS Wellem, Zakridatul Agusmaniar Rane, and Johar Amir. Konsep, Teori, Dan Aplikasi Kajian Sastra. Sumatera Barat: Sumatera Barat: PT Mafy Media Literasi Indonesia, 2023.
- News, BBC. “Charlie Hebdo: 14 Orang Dinyatakan Bersalah Dalam Serangan Teror Paris 2015.” BBC News Indonesia, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/dunia-55327727#:~:text=Pada tanggal 7 Januari 2015,lima kartunis majalah satir tersebut. .
- ———. “Sekularisme Prancis: Karikatur Nabi Muhammad, ‘Separatisme Islam’, Sikap Presiden Macron Dan Tiga Serangan Teror Dalam Sebulan.” BBC News Indonesia, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/dunia-54630462 .
- Nugraha, Eghy Farhan. “The Form and Meaning of Nahyi In The Quran Surah Al-Baqarah: A Review Of Roman Jakobson’s Semiotics.” Lughwiyah 4, no. 2 (2022): 139–52. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.31958/lughawiyah.v4i2.6940.
- Pamungkas, Muhammad Ibnu, and Abdul Hadi. “????? ????? ‘Code-Message’ ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????.” Ta`lim Al-`Arabiyyah: Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Arab & Kebahasaaraban 6, no. 1 (2022): 52–65. https://doi.org/10.15575/jpba.v5i2.
- Panighel, Marta. “Unveiling ( Post ) Colonial République?: Gendered Islamophobia in France Marta Panighel.” Aboutgender International Journal of Gender Studies 11, no. 21 (2022): 142–72. https://doi.org/10.15167/2279-5057/AG2022.11.21.1321.
- Press, News. “Charlie Hebdo: Tribute to Freedom of Expression.” News Press, 2015. https://www.news-press.com/story/opinion/2015/01/10/charlie-hebdo-tribute-freedom-expression/21573301/.
- Putra, Edy A. “Merasa Didiskriminasi, Banyak Warga Muslim Prancis Pindah Ke Turki.” Kompas TV, 2022. https://www.kompas.tv/internasional/262848/merasa-didiskriminasi-banyak-warga-muslim-prancis-pindah-ke-turki?page=all.
- Putri, Maharani Suryadie, and Firdaus Imaduddin. “Muslim Di Prancis ?(Dinamika, Eksistensi Dan Historis)?.” Journal of Comparative Study of Religions 2, no. 1 (2021). https://doi.org/10.21111/jcsr.v2i1.6668.
- Riyadi, Ahmad. “Penafsiran Surat Al-Anfal Ayat Ke-60 Melalui Pendekatan Semiotika (Aplikasi Teori Semiotika Komunikasi Roman Jakobson).” El-’Umdah 2, no. 1 (2019): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.20414/el-umdah.v2i1.903.
- Sobur, Alex. Semiotika Komunikasi, Analisis Teks Media Suatu Pengantar Untuk Analisa Wacana Dan Analisis Farming. Bandung: Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya, 2006.
- Stetler, Harrison. “France’s Crackdown on Islamic Dress in Schools Is a Crude Attack on Muslims.” Jacobin, 2023. https://jacobin.com/2023/09/france-crackdown-islam-muslims-abaya-dress-code-education-secularization.
- Sütiste, Elin. “Roman Jakobson and The Topic of Translation: Reception in Academic Reference Works.” ????????? - Sign Systems Studies 36, no. 2 (2008): 271–314.
- Taufiq, Wildan. Semiotika: Untuk Kajian Sastra Dan Al-Qur`an. Bandung: Bandung: Yrama Widya, 2016.
- Viva. “Apakah Charlie Hebdo Wujud Kebebasan Pers Di Prancis.” VIVA, 2020. https://www.newarab.com/features/french-islamophobia-product-its-national-identity.
- Wulansari, Rahmawati. “Pemikiran Tokoh Semiotika Modern.” Textura Journal 1, no. 1 (2020): 48–62. https://journal.piksi.ac.id/index.php/Textura/article/view/273/183.
- Yanar???k, O?uzhan. “Rise of Islamophobia in Germany, France and Switzerland After 9/11.” Ombudsman Akademik, no. 7 (2017): 101–25. https://doi.org/10.32002/ombudsmanakademik.440217.
- Zuckerman, Charles H.P. “Phatic, The: Communication and Communion.” The International Encyclopedia of Linguistic Anthropology, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786093.iela0311.
References
Alsaafin, Linah. “Islamophobia on the Rise as French Presidential Election Nears.” Aljazeera, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/3/france-election-muslims-islamophobia-macron.
Amnesty. “France 2022.” Amnesty International, 2023. https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/europe-and-central-asia/france/report-france/.
Amrulloh, Ahmad Yasir, and Fathoni Arifandi. “Ma’na Al-Hubb Fi Kitaab Al-Hubb Fi Al-Qur’an Al-Karim Bi Qalam M. Said Ramadhan Al-Buthi Istinaadan Ila Al-Mandzur Al-Siimiyaa’iy Li Roman Jakobson.” Afshaha: Jurnal Bahasa Dan Sastra Arab 1, no. 2 (2022): 124–36.
Basri, Muhammad Ridha. “Dilema Negara Sekuler Prancis: Di Antara Tarikan Islamofobia Dan Fundamentalisme Agama.” Zawiyah: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam 8, no. 1 (2022): 143. https://doi.org/10.31332/zjpi.v8i1.3127.
Bayrakli, Enes, and Farid Hafez. Islamophobia in Muslim Majority Societies. Islamophobia in Muslim Majority Societies, 2018. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429464850.
Christiatuti, Novi. “Nekat, Charlie Hebdo Akan Terbitkan Ulang Karikatur Nabi Muhammad.” Detik News, 2020. https://news.detik.com/internasional/d-5156270/nekat-charlie-hebdo-akan-terbitkan-ulang-karikatur-nabi-muhammad .
Dille, Jackson. “Religious Discrimination against Muslims in France.” Ballard Brief, 2023. https://ballardbrief.byu.edu/issue-briefs/religious-discrimination-against-muslims-in-france.
DW. “Usai Teror, Muslim Prancis Hadapi Stigmatisasi.” DW News, 2020. https://www.dw.com/id/teror-di-prancis-kian-sudutkan-minoritas-muslim/a-55474495.
Esmano, Syifa Radhityani, and Airin Miranda. “Pengaruh Kebijakan Laïcité Terhadap Muslim Di Institusi Pendidikan Negeri Prancis Pada Masa Pemerintahan Macron.” Multikultura 1, no. 1 (2022): 24–41.
Fajrina, Siti, and Surwandono Surwandono. “Retaliasi Islamophobia Di Prancis Dalam Prinsip Maqashid Syari’Ah Dharuriyyah.” Jurnal Politik Profetik 9, no. 1 (2021): 84. https://doi.org/10.24252/profetik.v9i1a5.
Fakhriansyah, M. “Negara-Negara Tempat Pelecehan Gambar Nabi Muhammad Terjadi.” CNBC Indonesia, 2023. https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20230119191550-4-406928/negara-negara-tempat-pelecehan-gambar-nabi-muhammad-terjadi.
Firouzi, Jafar, and Seyyed Masoud Eshaghzade. “The Analysis of Applying Roman Jakobson Theory to Bahiyeh Afnan Shahid English Translation of Sepehri ’ s Eight Books.” Journal of Language and Translation 13, no. 4 (2023): 269–80.
Francois, Myriam. “France’s Treatment of Its Muslim Citizens Is the True Measure of Its Republican Values.” Time, 2020. https://time.com/5918657/frances-muslim-citizens-republican-values/.
Frenschi, Rayan. “French Islamophobia and Racism Are By-Products of Its Exclusionary National Identity.” The New Arab, 2023. https://www.newarab.com/features/french-islamophobia-product-its-national-identity.
Guerin, Cecile, and Zoe Fourel. “A Snapshot Analysis of Anti-Muslim Mobilisation in France after Terror Attacks.” Vision of Humanity, 2023. https://www.visionofhumanity.org/a-snapshot-analysis-of-anti-muslim-mobilisation-in-france-after-terror-attacks/.
Hakim, Lukman, and Alif Hanafi. “Analisis Framing Pemberitaan Pembakaran Al-Qur’an Di Media Online.” Journal of Islamic Communication Studies (JICoS) 1, no. 2 (2023): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.15642/jicos.2023.1.2.1-12.
Handayani, Rossi. “Buntut Sikap Macron, Muslim Prancis Jadi Sasaran Kekerasan.” Republika, 2020. https://khazanah.republika.co.id/berita/qjkikg320/buntut-sikap-macron-muslim-prancis-jadi-sasaran-kekerasan.
Islam, Aktar. “Roman Jakobson’s Theory of Poetic Appreciation in Relation to Linguistics.” Literary Herald: An International Refereed/Peer-Reviewed English e-Journal 6, no. 4 (2020): 157–63. http://tlhjournal.com/uploads/products/22.shruti-pandey-article.pdf.
Islamy, Putri Raisa, and Lusi Andriyani. “Islamophobia Di Jerman Dan Prancis.” INDEPENDEN: Jurnal Politik Indonesia Dan Global 2, no. 2 (2021): 37. https://doi.org/10.24853/independen.2.2.37-46.
Jakobson, Roman. Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics. Cambridge: Cambridge: MIT Press, 1960.
Jalalat, Faramarz, Ebrahim Danesh, and Mohammad Farahmand. “A Comparative Study of Abu Yaqube Sejestani and Roman Jakobson’s Communication Model and Theory.” Journal of Comparative Literature, no. 19 (2017): 27–45.
Jamal, Tanzila. “The Weaponization of Laïcité Against Muslims: Pushing More Towards Extremism.” LSE Blogs, 2021. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/eurocrisispress/2021/06/15/weaponization-of-laicite/.
Jia, Hongwei. “Semiospheric Translation Types Reconsidered from the Translation Semiotics Perspective.” Semiotica 2019, no. 231 (2019): 121–45. https://doi.org/10.1515/sem-2017-0151.
Khoer, Miftahul. Teori Semiotika Roman Jakobson Dan Implementasinya Terhadap Beberapa Hadist Di Dalam Buku Yang Berjudul 24 Jam Selaras Dan Teratur Bersama Rasul Oleh Ahmad Von Denferr. Bandung: Bandung: Repository UIN Bandung, 2019.
Kridalaksana, Harimurti. Mongin Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) - Peletak Dasar Strukturalisme Dan Linguistik Modern/ Harimurti. Jakarta: Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, 2005.
Lebourg, Nicolas. Islamophobia in France. Occasion, 2016.
Lestari, Daurina. “Islamofobia Paksa Pekerja Muslim Prancis Pindah Ke Luar Negeri.” VIVA, 2023. https://www.viva.co.id/berita/dunia/1583855-islamofobia-paksa-pekerja-muslim-prancis-pindah-ke-luar-negeri.
Losi, Rizky Vita, Tiyas Saputri, Widyashanti Kunthara Anindita, Beny Hamdani, Benedictus Sudiyana, Ika Oktaria Cahyaningrum, Fitri Ayu, Nurbaiti Ali, and Nur Hasyim. Linguistik: Teori Dan Pendekatannya. Tahta Media Group, 2023.
Luzier, Renald. “Cartoonist Luz to Quit Charlie Hebdo.” The Guardian, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/may/19/cartoonist-luz-to-quit-charlie-hebdo-magazine.
Muhammadiah, Mas`ud, Sri Suharti, Andi Hamsiah, Tomi Arianto, Agus Rofi`i, Karmila AS Wellem, Zakridatul Agusmaniar Rane, and Johar Amir. Konsep, Teori, Dan Aplikasi Kajian Sastra. Sumatera Barat: Sumatera Barat: PT Mafy Media Literasi Indonesia, 2023.
News, BBC. “Charlie Hebdo: 14 Orang Dinyatakan Bersalah Dalam Serangan Teror Paris 2015.” BBC News Indonesia, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/dunia-55327727#:~:text=Pada tanggal 7 Januari 2015,lima kartunis majalah satir tersebut. .
———. “Sekularisme Prancis: Karikatur Nabi Muhammad, ‘Separatisme Islam’, Sikap Presiden Macron Dan Tiga Serangan Teror Dalam Sebulan.” BBC News Indonesia, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/dunia-54630462 .
Nugraha, Eghy Farhan. “The Form and Meaning of Nahyi In The Quran Surah Al-Baqarah: A Review Of Roman Jakobson’s Semiotics.” Lughwiyah 4, no. 2 (2022): 139–52. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.31958/lughawiyah.v4i2.6940.
Pamungkas, Muhammad Ibnu, and Abdul Hadi. “????? ????? ‘Code-Message’ ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????.” Ta`lim Al-`Arabiyyah: Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Arab & Kebahasaaraban 6, no. 1 (2022): 52–65. https://doi.org/10.15575/jpba.v5i2.
Panighel, Marta. “Unveiling ( Post ) Colonial République?: Gendered Islamophobia in France Marta Panighel.” Aboutgender International Journal of Gender Studies 11, no. 21 (2022): 142–72. https://doi.org/10.15167/2279-5057/AG2022.11.21.1321.
Press, News. “Charlie Hebdo: Tribute to Freedom of Expression.” News Press, 2015. https://www.news-press.com/story/opinion/2015/01/10/charlie-hebdo-tribute-freedom-expression/21573301/.
Putra, Edy A. “Merasa Didiskriminasi, Banyak Warga Muslim Prancis Pindah Ke Turki.” Kompas TV, 2022. https://www.kompas.tv/internasional/262848/merasa-didiskriminasi-banyak-warga-muslim-prancis-pindah-ke-turki?page=all.
Putri, Maharani Suryadie, and Firdaus Imaduddin. “Muslim Di Prancis ?(Dinamika, Eksistensi Dan Historis)?.” Journal of Comparative Study of Religions 2, no. 1 (2021). https://doi.org/10.21111/jcsr.v2i1.6668.
Riyadi, Ahmad. “Penafsiran Surat Al-Anfal Ayat Ke-60 Melalui Pendekatan Semiotika (Aplikasi Teori Semiotika Komunikasi Roman Jakobson).” El-’Umdah 2, no. 1 (2019): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.20414/el-umdah.v2i1.903.
Sobur, Alex. Semiotika Komunikasi, Analisis Teks Media Suatu Pengantar Untuk Analisa Wacana Dan Analisis Farming. Bandung: Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya, 2006.
Stetler, Harrison. “France’s Crackdown on Islamic Dress in Schools Is a Crude Attack on Muslims.” Jacobin, 2023. https://jacobin.com/2023/09/france-crackdown-islam-muslims-abaya-dress-code-education-secularization.
Sütiste, Elin. “Roman Jakobson and The Topic of Translation: Reception in Academic Reference Works.” ????????? - Sign Systems Studies 36, no. 2 (2008): 271–314.
Taufiq, Wildan. Semiotika: Untuk Kajian Sastra Dan Al-Qur`an. Bandung: Bandung: Yrama Widya, 2016.
Viva. “Apakah Charlie Hebdo Wujud Kebebasan Pers Di Prancis.” VIVA, 2020. https://www.newarab.com/features/french-islamophobia-product-its-national-identity.
Wulansari, Rahmawati. “Pemikiran Tokoh Semiotika Modern.” Textura Journal 1, no. 1 (2020): 48–62. https://journal.piksi.ac.id/index.php/Textura/article/view/273/183.
Yanar???k, O?uzhan. “Rise of Islamophobia in Germany, France and Switzerland After 9/11.” Ombudsman Akademik, no. 7 (2017): 101–25. https://doi.org/10.32002/ombudsmanakademik.440217.
Zuckerman, Charles H.P. “Phatic, The: Communication and Communion.” The International Encyclopedia of Linguistic Anthropology, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786093.iela0311.